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Arc-Welding Fundamentals
The Lincoln Electric Company, 1994.

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix – directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture of metals, the final weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal of the parts. This is in sharp contrast to non-fusion processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the mechanical and physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated at the joint.

Fig. 1 The basic arc-welding circuit

In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between the actual work and an electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current between the tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses the second type of electrode.

Basic Welding Circuit

The basic arc-welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever controls may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the workpiece and by a « hot » cable to an electrode holder of some type, which makes an electrical contact with the welding electrode.

An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode tip touches the workpiece and is withdrawn, yet still with in close contact.

The arc produces a temperature of about 6500ºF at the tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode, producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a « crater. » The crater solidifies behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.

Arc Shielding

However, joining metals requires more than moving an electrode along a joint. Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air – oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air, oxides and nitrides form which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint. Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of covering the arc and the molten pool with a protective shield of gas, vapor, or slag. This is called arc shielding. This shielding prevents or minimizes contact of the molten metal with air. Shielding also may improve the weld. An example is a granular flux, which actually adds deoxidizers to the weld.

Fig. 2 This shows how the coating on a coated (stick) electrode provides a gaseous shield around the arc and a slag covering on the hot weld deposit.

Figure 2 illustrates the shielding of the welding arc and molten pool with a Stick electrode. The extruded covering on the filler metal rod, provides a shielding gas at the point of contact while the slag protects the fresh weld from the air.

The arc itself is a very complex phenomenon. In-depth understanding of the physics of the arc is of little value to the welder, but some knowledge of its general characteristics can be useful.

Nature of the Arc

An arc is an electric current flowing between two electrodes through an ionized column of gas. A negatively charged cathode and a positively charged anode create the intense heat of the welding arc. Negative and positive ions are bounced off of each other in the plasma column at an accelerated rate.

In welding, the arc not only provides the heat needed to melt the electrode and the base metal, but under certain conditions must also supply the means to transport the molten metal from the tip of the electrode to the work. Several mechanisms for metal transfer exist. Two (of many) examples include:

1. Surface Tension Transfer – a drop of molten metal touches the molten metal pool and is drawn into it by surface tension.
2. Spray Arc – the drop is ejected from the molten metal at the electrode tip by an electric pinch propelling it to the molten pool. (great for overhead welding!)

If an electrode is consumable, the tip melts under the heat of the arc and molten droplets are detached and transported to the work through the arc column. Any arc welding system in which the electrode is melted off to become part of the weld is described as metal-arc. In carbon or tungsten (TIG) welding there are no molten droplets to be forced across the gap and onto the work. Filler metal is melted into the joint from a separate rod or wire.

More of the heat developed by the arc is transferred to the weld pool with consumable electrodes. This produces higher thermal efficiencies and narrower heat-affected zones.

Since there must be an ionized path to conduct electricity across a gap, the mere switching on of the welding current with an electrically cold electrode posed over it will not start the arc. The arc must be ignited. This is caused by either supplying an initial voltage high enough to cause a discharge or by touching the electrode to the work and then withdrawing it as the contact area becomes heated.

Arc welding may be done with direct current (DC) with the electrode either positive or negative or alternating current (AC). The choice of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere, and the metal being welded.

Welding, where materials are heated and joined together, may seem like a simple task, but it can be dangerous when the equipment or environment is handled improperly. There are over 70 different welding processes, as well as a variety of hazards such as burns, eye damage, fume exposure, and ultraviolet radiation to watch out for and be aware of.

Metals can be joined, cut, or separated by a heat source, most commonly an electric arc, which melts the material upon contact to create a joint. This is the most complicated step in the welding process, and many factors can affect the final outcome. Here are a few common mistakes to be aware of and avoid in order to complete your work safely.

Ensure Proper Handling During Mechanic Training

Handling welding equipment requires attention and focus in order to be successful. First, and perhaps most importantly, be sure that you have proper safety equipment and are working on a firm foundation. It may be tempting to plug in the rod and work on any available surface, but the welding table is far more preferable than a piece of scrap or flat ground.

Be aware of your aim and stance before you start to weld

Your stance also affects how you work when you weld. In mechanic training, make sure to establish a firm, but comfortable position before aiming the rod where you want to start.

Check the Metal and Electric Current Type

Before you try to weld anything, it’s important to note the type of metal you will use, because it influences the type and amount of current to use in the rod itself. Additionally, welding with the wrong rod is a common mistake for new welders in mechanic schools, as well as using the wrong temperature setting.

Welding Basics Part 1 & 2the Mechanics

Consult the welder guidelines, or cut off a few scraps to safely test your settings and make sure your weld is both strong enough to join, but not too powerful that it burns through the metal. Remember to never change the temperature setting while it is being used, because this can lead to electrocution.

Using the Right Equipment in Auto Mechanic Courses

Both new and seasoned welders may forget that their equipment collects oil, dirt, grease, and rust, and this can affect weld quality as well as the strength and cleanliness of the weld joint. A moist or damaged electrode in the welding rod can cause major problems while being used, and should be stored somewhere warm and dry.

Welding equipment should be kept updated and clean

Similarly, repurposing or using old, outdated equipment can cause operational problems or lost time due to troubleshooting or repairs. Welding rods in particular should be purchased new in order to provide the best possible quality.

Welding Basics Part 1 & 2the Mechanical

Be Clean and Avoid Contamination

When it comes to the actual welding process, students should be aware of the particulars of the material they are working with, and how it will react to the welding equipment. Many new welders make the mistake of not identifying the base metal they are working with, and this can easily cause a serious reaction if the wrong material is exposed to the torch, particularly if it has not been pre- or post-heated. Additionally, previously used welding materials with paint, rust, or chemical residue are not advisable to be used because they may produce noxious fumes when in contact with heat.

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Welding Basics Part 1 & 2the Mechanic

Categories: ATC News, Cambridge
Tags: auto mechanic courses, mechanic schools, mechanic training